Sunday, July 5, 2026

Acute Kidney Injury

 AKI Management Algorithm (Step-by-Step)


Step 1: Diagnose AKI

  • Criteria:
    • SCr increase ≥0.3 mg/dL within 48h or ≥1.5× baseline.
    • Urine output <0.5 mL/kg/h for ≥6h.
  • Rule out pseudorenal failure (e.g., dehydration, obstruction).

Step 2: Stage AKI (KDIGO)

Stage

SCr Criteria

Urine Output Criteria

1

≥0.3 mg/dL or 1.5–1.9× baseline

<0.5 mL/kg/h for 6–12h

2

2.0–2.9× baseline

<0.5 mL/kg/h for ≥12h

3

≥3.0× baseline or ≥4.0 mg/dL

<0.3 mL/kg/h for ≥24h or anuria


Step 3: Identify the Cause

Prerenal (60%)

  • History/Exam: Hypotension, dehydration, heart failure.
  • Labs: FeNa <1%, urine osmolality >500 mOsm/kg.
  • Management: Fluid resuscitation, optimize hemodynamics.

Intrinsic (35%)

  • ATNAcute Tubular Necrosis: Ischemia, toxins (aminoglycosides, contrast).
    • Labs: FeNa >2%, granular casts.
    • Management: Discontinue nephrotoxins, supportive care.
  • AINAcute interstitial nephritis:  Drugs (penicillin, PPIs, NSAIDs).
    • Labs: Eosinophils in urine, rash, fever.
    • Management: Stop offending drugs, ± steroids.
  • Glomerulonephritis/Vasculitis:
    • Labs: Proteinuria, hematuria, low C3/C4.
    • Management: Immunosuppression (steroids, cyclophosphamide).

Postrenal (5%)

  • History/Exam: Obstruction (stones, BPH, tumors).
  • Imaging: Renal ultrasound (hydronephrosis).
  • Management: Catheterization, nephrostomy, or stenting.

Step 4: Immediate Management

  • For All AKI:
    • Discontinue nephrotoxins (NSAIDs, ACEi/ARBs, aminoglycosides).
    • Optimize hemodynamics (fluids, vasopressors if needed).
    • Monitor:
      • SCr, BUN, electrolytes (K⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, PO₄³⁻).
      • Urine output (Foley catheter if oliguric).
      • Fluid balance (strict I/O).
  • Correct Electrolyte Imbalances:
    • Hyperkalemia (K⁺ >6.5 mEq/L):
      • Calcium gluconate (10 mL IV over 10 min).
      • Insulin + glucose (10 units insulin + 50 mL D50).
      • Albuterol nebulization (10–20 mg).
      • Dialysis if refractory or ECG changes.
    • Metabolic acidosis (pH <7.1): Bicarbonate.
    • Fluid overload: Diuretics (if responsive) or RRT.

Step 5: Indications for RRT (Dialysis)

Start RRT if AEIOU criteria are met:

  • Acidosis (pH <7.1, refractory).
  • Electrolyte disturbances (K⁺ >6.5 mEq/L, refractory).
  • Intoxication (dialyzable toxins: lithium, methanol, ethylene glycol).
  • Overload (fluid overload refractory to diuretics).
  • Uremia (BUN >100 mg/dL, pericarditis, encephalopathy, bleeding).

Modality Choice:

  • Intermittent Hemodialysis (IHD): Stable patients.
  • Continuous RRT (CRRT): Hemodynamically unstable (ICU).
  • Peritoneal Dialysis (PD): If vascular access is difficult.

Step 6: Supportive Care

  • Nutrition:
    • Protein: 0.8–1.0 g/kg/day.
    • Calories: 25–30 kcal/kg/day.
  • Fluid Balance:
    • Restrict fluids if oliguric (insensible losses + urine output).
  • Infection Prophylaxis:
    • Adjust antibiotic doses for renal function.

Step 7: Monitor and Follow-Up

  • Daily:
    • SCr, BUN, electrolytes, urine output, weight, fluid balance.
  • Renal Ultrasound: If no improvement in 24–48h (rule out obstruction).
  • Nephrology Consult:
    • Stage 2–3 AKI.
    • Unclear etiology.
    • Need for RRT.

Step 8: Prognosis and Prevention

  • Prognosis:
    • Mortality: ~10–30% (higher in ICU, sepsis, Stage 3).
    • Recovery: Prerenal AKI often reversible; ATN may take weeks.
    • ~20–30% progress to CKD.
  • Prevention:
    • Avoid nephrotoxins.
    • Hydrate before contrast procedures.
    • Optimize hemodynamics in high-risk patients.

Quick Reference Table: AKI Causes and Management

Type

Causes

Diagnostic Clues

Management

Pre-renal

Hypovolemia, hypotension, HF

FeNa <1%, urine osmolality >500

Fluids, optimize hemodynamics

ATN

Ischemia, toxins (aminoglycosides)

FeNa >2%, granular casts

Discontinue nephrotoxins, supportive

AIN

Drugs (penicillin, PPIs, NSAIDs)

Eosinophils in urine, rash, fever

Stop drug, ± steroids

Glomerulonephritis

Immune-mediated (e.g., vasculitis)

Proteinuria, hematuria, low C3/C4

Immunosuppression (steroids, cyclophosphamide)

Post-renal

Obstruction (stones, BPH, tumors)

Hydronephrosis on ultrasound

Catheterization, nephrostomy, stenting

 

Sunday, June 28, 2026

Maternal Sepsis

Maternal Sepsis Flashcard Presentation

Swaraj Hospital and Research Institute

Bolangir

1/39
Use arrow keys or buttons to navigate • 39 interactive flashcards

Friday, June 26, 2026

Premature Rupture of Membranes

🏥 PPROM QUICK REFERENCE

Premature Preterm Rupture of Membrane - Bedside Card

2-3%
of all pregnancies affected
33%
of preterm births
10-32%
recurrence risk
24-37w
typical presentation
🔍 DIAGNOSIS
  • Sterile speculum exam (GOLD STANDARD)
  • Look for pooled fluid in posterior fornix
  • Nitrazine test (alkaline = blue-green)
  • Ferning test (salt crystals)
  • Ultrasound (AFI assessment)
  • PAMG-1 if equivocal
⚠ SCREEN FOR COMPLICATIONS
  • Chorioamnionitis (fever + signs)
  • Placental abruption (bleeding + pain)
  • Cord prolapse (cord visible)
  • Fetal distress (abnormal CTG)

Any complication → STAT DELIVERY

📍 MANAGEMENT BY GA
  • Less than 22-24w: Previable (shared decision)
  • 22-34w: EXPECTANT management
  • 34-37w: Depends on GBS status
  • 37w and above: Deliver (term reached)
💊 MEDICATIONS - ALL GA LESS THAN 34-35w
Corticosteroids
Betamethasone 12mg IM x2 at 24h apart
Antibiotics (latency)
Ampicillin + Macrolide x7-10 days
GBS prophylaxis (labor)
Penicillin G or Ampicillin IV
✓ MATERNAL SURVEILLANCE
  • Daily temp monitoring
  • Daily symptom check
  • Weekly speculum exams (NO digital)
  • Return if fever/pain/discharge/decreased FM
  • Bed rest NOT recommended
✓ FETAL SURVEILLANCE
  • Continuous CTG if greater than 24w viable
  • Daily fetal movement counting
  • Twice-weekly NST/CTG minimum
  • Ultrasound q2-4 weeks
  • Assess growth, AFI, placenta
⏱ IMMEDIATE STEPS
  • Confirm diagnosis (sterile speculum)
  • Vital signs + obstetric exam
  • Fetal assessment (CTG if viable)
  • Screen for complications
  • CBC + cultures + GBS swab
  • Ultrasound: confirm, assess GA, AFI
  • START corticosteroids STAT
🏥 ADMISSION CRITERIA
  • Any PPROM less than 34 weeks (typically)
  • First 48-72 hours minimum
  • Complications (fever, bleeding, distress)
  • Unreliable or no home support
  • GA less than 28 weeks (almost always)
🚨 RED FLAGS - DELIVER IMMEDIATELY
Chorioamnionitis:
Fever + tachycardia + tenderness + discharge
Abruption:
Bleeding + pain + shock signs
Cord Prolapse:
Cord visible through cervix
Fetal Distress:
Late decelerations + bradycardia
📋 DOCUMENTATION ESSENTIALS
Must include: Diagnosis method + results • Gestational age (LMP or US) • Red flag assessment • Complications screening • Medications given with times • Monitoring plan • Counseling and informed consent • Follow-up arranged

Version 1.0 | June 2026 | Swaraj Hospital and Research Institute, Bolangir

For complete details, refer to full PPROM Protocol Document

Protocol on Management of Severe Headache

Protocol on Management of Severe Headache - Swaraj Hospital & Research Institute
Swaraj Hospital & Research Institute

Protocol on Management of Severe Headache

Clinical Guidelines & Emergency Management Pathways

Version: 1.0
Effective Date: June 2026
Location: Bolangir
Department: Emergency & Neurology
📋

Executive Summary

This protocol provides standardized guidelines for the assessment, investigation, and management of severe headache presentations at Swaraj Hospital & Research Institute. While most acute headaches are primary (benign) in nature, 15-25% of severe presentations indicate serious underlying pathology requiring urgent intervention including subarachnoid hemorrhage, meningitis, acute stroke, or space-occupying lesions.

Protocol Objectives
  • Rapid identification of red-flag warning symptoms
  • Appropriate use of diagnostic investigations
  • Timely specialist referral
  • Evidence-based pain management
  • Clear admission and discharge criteria
01

Introduction & Definitions

Definition of Severe Headache

Severe headache is acute cranial pain of significant intensity (≥7/10 on visual analog scale) affecting the head or upper neck region, requiring urgent assessment to identify life-threatening causes and provide appropriate management.

Clinical Significance

  • Headache is the 3rd most common ED presentation
  • 85-90% are primary headaches (migraine, tension, cluster)
  • 10-15% have secondary causes requiring intervention
  • Misdiagnosis of dangerous causes leads to poor outcomes
  • Early recognition and management reduce morbidity and mortality

Key Principles

  1. High index of suspicion for dangerous causes
  2. Rapid assessment minimizes delays
  3. Appropriate imaging based on red flags
  4. Clear referral pathways established

Red Flag Symptoms

ANY red flag present requires immediate investigation and likely admission. Do not discharge with reassurance alone.

Thunderclap Headache
Maximal intensity within 1-2 minutes; suggestive of SAH, dissection, RCVS. STAT imaging required.
🌡
Fever + Neck Stiffness
Classic meningitis triad; requires immediate LP and antibiotics within 60 minutes.
🧠
Focal Neurological Deficit
Weakness, aphasia, ataxia; indicates stroke or mass lesion. Emergency imaging.
👁
Visual Symptoms
Diplopia, visual field loss, photophobia with vision loss; suggests raised ICP or vascular event.
💭
Altered Consciousness
Confusion, disorientation, reduced LOC; emergency imaging and monitoring required.
First/Worst Headache of Life
New onset severe, worst ever experienced; always investigate until proven benign.

Additional Risk Factors

  • Immunocompromised patients
  • Age >50 (increased risk of GCA, stroke)
  • History of malignancy
  • Pregnancy or postpartum period
  • Anticoagulation therapy
  • Recent head/neck trauma
  • Sudden exertional onset
02

Initial Assessment & Clinical Evaluation

History Taking Components

Onset & Temporal Pattern

  • Sudden vs gradual onset
  • Progressive vs stable
  • Frequency and duration
  • Time of day when worst

Headache Characteristics

  • Pain quality: throbbing, pressure, sharp, dull
  • Severity: 0-10 scale
  • Location: unilateral, bilateral, focal, diffuse
  • Radiation pattern

Associated Features

  • Fever, chills
  • Nausea, vomiting
  • Visual symptoms
  • Weakness, numbness
  • Confusion, behavioral changes
  • Neck stiffness

Vital Signs Assessment

  • Temperature: Fever suggests infection (meningitis, encephalitis)
  • Blood Pressure: Hypertension may indicate emergency (ICH, eclampsia)
  • Heart Rate & Rhythm: Tachycardia suggests systemic illness
  • Respiratory Rate: Altered breathing suggests CNS involvement
  • Oxygen Saturation: Hypoxia requires intervention

Neurological Examination (Minimum Standards)

Exam Component What to Assess Red Flag Finding
Level of Consciousness Alert vs lethargic vs confused Altered LOC or confusion
Pupils Size, symmetry, reactivity to light Unequal or fixed pupils
Visual Fields Confrontation testing Visual field defect
Motor Strength Arm drift, leg strength (0-5 scale) Asymmetric weakness
Cerebellar Signs Gait, balance, coordination Ataxia or dysmetria
Meningeal Signs Neck stiffness, Kernig, Brudzinski Any meningeal sign positive
Fundoscopy Look for papilloedema Papilloedema present
03

Diagnostic Investigations

Imaging Selection

CT Brain (Non-contrast)

First-line Imaging
Indications: All thunderclap headaches, first/worst headache, focal deficits, altered LOC, fever + meningeal signs
Timing: Within 30 minutes
Sensitivity: 95%+ for SAH in first 6 hours
Advantages: Fast, readily available, rules out hemorrhage and mass

CT Angiography (CTA)

Enhanced Vascular Imaging
Indications: SAH suspected, thunderclap with normal CT, arterial dissection suspected
Sensitivity: Excellent for aneurysm and arterial dissection
Timing: STAT if SAH suspected

MRI with MR Venogram

Advanced Imaging
Indications: Subacute/chronic progressive headache, suspected thrombosis, posterior fossa pathology
Advantages: Better tissue resolution, no radiation
Disadvantage: Slower, less accessible acutely

Lumbar Puncture (CSF Analysis)

Meningitis/Encephalitis Diagnosis
Indications: Meningitis strongly suspected, CSF pressure assessment
Timing: Within 60 minutes if bacterial meningitis
IMPORTANT: Perform CT first to rule out contraindications (mass, herniation)
Tests: Cell count, glucose, protein, culture, PCR, Gram stain

Blood Investigations

Test Indication What It Detects
CBC Suspected infection Elevated WBC suggests infection
ESR/CRP Age >50 with headache Inflammation (GCA, vasculitis)
Blood Cultures Before antibiotics if sepsis Bacteremia (meningitis)
PT/INR If anticoagulated Bleeding risk assessment
Virology PCR Meningitis suspected Viral pathogens

Investigation Decision Tree

1
Assess for Red Flags
Thunderclap, fever + neck stiffness, focal deficit, visual symptoms, altered LOC, first/worst headache?
2
If RED FLAGS present → STAT CT Brain
Complete within 30 minutes. Notify Neurology and prepare for possible ICU admission.
3
CT Normal? → Consider next step
If meningitis suspected → LP. If thunderclap → CTA. If improving → Consider discharge.
4
CT Abnormal → Treat per finding
SAH, ICH, mass, or other pathology identified. Consult appropriate specialist (Neurology, Neurosurgery).
04

Emergency Management Algorithm

1
Stabilization (First 10 minutes)
Establish IV access (two lines if severe), Oxygen (SpO₂ ≥94%), Cardiac monitor, NPO status, Quiet dark environment
2
Rapid Assessment for Red Flags
If red flags present: STAT CT/CTA, Notify Neurology, Request ICU bed. If negative: Proceed to Step 3.
3
Acute Pain Management
Paracetamol 1g IV/PO OR Ketorolac 30mg IV/IM. Avoid opioids (mask deterioration) and NSAIDs if hemorrhage suspected.
4
Supportive Care
Anti-emetics if nausea, IV fluids if dehydrated, dark/quiet room for migraine, temperature management if febrile.
5
Decision & Disposition
If imaging normal and red flags absent + pain controlled → Safe for discharge with return precautions.

Management of Specific Conditions

Suspected Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (SAH)

Immediate Actions:
  • STAT CT, Neurology + Neurosurgery consult
  • ICU admission, continuous neuro monitoring
  • Nimodipine 60mg IV 4-hourly (vasospasm prevention)
  • Target SBP <160, maintain oxygenation
  • Avoid hypertension and hypoxia

Suspected Meningitis

STAT Antibiotic Therapy (Do not delay for LP)
  • Ceftriaxone 2g IV 12-hourly
  • Vancomycin 15-20mg/kg IV 8-12 hourly
  • Ampicillin if >50 years or immunocompromised
  • Dexamethasone 10mg IV with first antibiotic
  • LP after CT to rule out contraindications
  • ICU admission

Suspected Acute Stroke

Stroke Protocol:
  • STAT CT/CTA, Neurology consult
  • Activate stroke alert
  • Consider thrombolysis if within therapeutic window
  • ICU monitoring
05

Treatment Protocols

Primary Analgesics

Paracetamol (Acetaminophen)
1g IV or PO every 4-6 hours | Maximum 4g in 24 hours

Note: First-line, safe in pregnancy, avoid in severe hepatic disease

Ketorolac (NSAID)
30mg IV/IM single dose, then 10mg PO TID

Contraindications: Renal disease, GI bleed, pregnancy, hemorrhage suspected

Indomethacin
25-50mg PO/rectal TID for 7 days

Best for: Tension headache, cluster headache prophylaxis

Anti-emetics

Prochlorperazine
10mg IV/IM/PO every 6-8 hours
Ondansetron
4-8mg IV/PO every 8 hours

Migraine-Specific Therapy

Sumatriptan (Triptan)
6mg subcutaneous OR 50mg oral (only if migraine confirmed)
Propranolol (Prophylaxis)
40-80mg oral daily-BID (for recurrent migraine >2/month)
Amitriptyline (Prophylaxis)
10-75mg oral at bedtime (for chronic migraine)

Supportive Care Measures

  • ✓ Dark, quiet room (minimizes migraine triggers)
  • ✓ Head elevation 30 degrees
  • ✓ Oxygen if SpO₂ <94%
  • ✓ IV fluids if dehydrated
  • ✓ Temperature control if febrile
  • ✓ Position changes for comfort

Medications to AVOID

Do Not Use If:
  • Opioids: Mask neurological deterioration, risk of dependence
  • NSAIDs: Suspected hemorrhage (SAH, ICH, anticoagulated patient)
  • Excess Analgesics: Risk of medication overuse headache (>10 days/month)
06

Admission, Discharge & Referral

ADMISSION CRITERIA
  • Any red flag symptom present
  • First/worst headache of life
  • Progressive or unrelenting pain
  • Fever + meningeal signs
  • Focal neurological deficit
  • Altered consciousness
  • Abnormal imaging findings
  • Failed outpatient management
SAFE DISCHARGE (ALL required)
  • Complete neuro exam normal
  • No red flag symptoms
  • Imaging normal (if done)
  • Pain controlled/improving
  • Reliable patient with support
  • Clear follow-up arranged
  • Return precautions explained
NEUROLOGY REFERRAL
  • Suspected SAH/ICH/stroke
  • Space-occupying lesion
  • Recurrent/chronic headache
  • Migraine requiring prophylaxis
  • Atypical features
  • Undiagnosed after workup

Return Precautions for Discharged Patients

Advise Patient to Return Immediately If:
  • Headache progressively worsens
  • New weakness, numbness, or difficulty speaking
  • Vision changes or eye pain
  • Neck stiffness or fever develops
  • Confusion or altered consciousness
  • Seizures occur
  • Headache different in character from usual

Documentation Requirements

Element What to Document
Vital Signs Temperature, BP, HR, RR, SpO₂ with time recorded
Pain Severity 0-10 scale, location, character, onset
Red Flag Assessment Specific findings or explicitly "no red flags identified"
Neurological Exam LOC, pupils, motor, cerebellar signs, meningeal signs
Imaging Type, findings, time completed
Medications Drug, dose, route, time, response
Final Diagnosis Primary vs secondary, specific type
Disposition Admitted to (ward/ICU), discharged, or referred
📚

References & Guidelines

  1. Hainer BL, Matheson EM. Approach to acute headache in adults. Am Fam Physician. 2013;87(10):682-687.
  2. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). Standard Treatment Workflow for Management of Headache. Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. 2024.
  3. South Eastern Sydney Local Health District. Assessment and Management of Headaches in Adults within SESLHD Emergency Departments. SESLHDGL/060. January 2025.
  4. Edvardsson B, Edvinsson L. Principles in evaluation of headache. Neurol Clin. 2019;37(4):745-760.
  5. Orr SL, et al. 2025 Guideline Update to Acute Treatment of Migraine for Adults in the Emergency Department. American Headache Society. 2025.
  6. International Headache Society. International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-3). 3rd ed. 2024.
Disclaimer
This protocol is a clinical guideline based on best practices and available evidence. Individual clinical judgment and patient-specific factors must guide treatment decisions. Any deviations from this protocol should be documented with clinical reasoning.

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